Cognitive deficits are a common consequence of neurological disease, and there is evidence that specific cognitive training may be effective in rehabilitation. Behavioural dysfunction following neurological disease constitutes one of the major causes of disability worldwide, exerts a major impact on the daily life of affected individuals, and their families, also with a financial burden both for patients, and the society in general. Therefore, the adequate treatment of cognitive dysfunction is a much relevant issue, with social and economical implications, over and above the neuropsychological problem per se. Several investigations emphasise the fact that interacting with neural activity, by means of cortical stimulation, can affect cognitive performance. A number of studies have reported enhanced performance in specific cognitive tasks in patients with several types of neurological disease, after receiving Non Invasive Brain Stimulation (NIBS) to specific cortical areas, namely: Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation, and transcranial Electrical Stimulation. In general, the evidence highlights the possibility of inducing changes in cortical excitability, which, in turn, may lead to a plastic reorganization of dysfunctional networks, responsible for the impaired cognitive functions. Despite these advances, a number of important questions remain open, regarding the use of stimulation techniques in cognitive rehabilitation. This special issue puts together international leading experts in the field, to review and discuss recent advances as to whether NIBS techniques alone, or combined with behavioural cognitive rehabilitation, can lead to performance enhancements, and why. The issue is timely and promises to have a huge impact across many domains of clinical and basic neuroscience.

Stroke is the major cause of long-term disability worldwide, with impaired manual dexterity being a common feature. In the past few years, noninvasive brain stimulation (NIBS) techniques, such as transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), have been investigated as adjuvant strategies to neurorehabilitative interventions. These NIBS techniques can be used to modulate cortical excitability during and for several minutes after the end of the stimulation period. Depending on the stimulation parameters, cortical excitability can be reduced (inhibition) or enhanced (facilitation). Differential modulation of cortical excitability in the affected and unaffected hemisphere of patients with stroke may induce plastic changes within neural networks active during functional recovery. The aims of this chapter are to describe results from these proof-of-principle trials and discuss possible putative mechanisms underlying such effects. Neurophysiological and neuroimaging changes induced by application of NIBS are reviewed briefly.

Non-invasive Brain Stimulation (NIBS) in Neurodevelopmental Disorders, Volume 264 presents the latest updates on recent techniques used to examine the potential treatment of psychiatric and neurological disorders in adults. In this special issue, the book's authors and contributors provide a unique focus on the potential effects of non-invasive brain stimulation. Topics cover a range of reviews, opinions, methodologies, original research articles, and suggestions on how to better translate scientific knowledge into practice. This new release will help guide basic research and the development of therapeutic interventions for children and adolescents who suffer from neurodevelopmental disorders. Covers the effects of brain stimulation on different neurodevelopmental disorders Includes experimental studies in humans, animals and associated theoretical reviews Provides the most accurate and up-to-date coverage from selected international experts

The potential efficacy of non-invasive brain stimulation procedures for the management of specific symptoms in diverse neurological and psychiatric conditions has been tested in the past decade or so. For example, repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) over prefrontal areas has been extensively investigated as a treatment for patients with medication-resistant depression and has been shown to be associated with improvement of mood. Similarly, non-invasive stimulation techniques have been applied to various symptoms of Parkinson's disease such as bradykinesia and dyskinesias, with variables degrees of success reported. However, attempts to expand previously observed clinical improvements to other neurological disorders (e.g. Tourette's syndrome, autism, epilepsy) has been controversial. In trying to bypass potential confounding elements, researchers aim to target neural populations altered in disease to either increase or decrease their corrupted baseline activity. In addition, a complementary approach is to extend stimulation protocols that results enhanced behavior in healthy participants. This Frontiers Research Topic on non-invasive brain stimulation and enhancement of function tries to combine a series of articles from researchers who used non-invasive brain stimulation to aim improvement of either a motoric, cognitive or behavioral nature investigated behaviorally, physiologically or using brain imaging techniques in clinical populations. Investigation of the relation between enhancement of function in healthy populations and clinical improvement in patients with neurological or psychiatric disorders needs further consideration.

The Stimulated Brain—which garnered an Honorable Mention for Biomedicine & Neuroscience at the 2015 PROSE Awards from the Association of American Publishers—presents the first integration of findings on brain stimulation from different research fields with a primary focus on Transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES), one of the most frequently used noninvasive stimulation methods. The last decade has witnessed a significant increase in the amount of research exploring how noninvasive brain stimulation can not only modulate but also enhance cognition and brain functions. However, although Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) and particularly tES have the potential to become more widely applicable techniques (as they come with none of the risks associated with deep brain stimulation) the reference literature on these neurotechnologies has been sparse. This resource provides a broad survey of current knowledge, and also marks future directions in cognitive and neuro-enhancement. It expands our understanding of basic research findings from animals and humans, including clear translational benefits for applied research and the therapeutic use of noninvasive brain stimulation methods. The book's coverage includes a primer that paves the way to a more advanced knowledge of tES and its physiological basis; current research findings on cognitive and neuro-enhancement in animals and typical and atypical human populations, such as neurological patients; and discussions of future directions, including specific neuroethical issues and pathways for collaboration and entrepreneurialism. The Stimulated Brain is the first book to provide a comprehensive understanding of different aspects of noninvasive brain stimulation that are critical for scientists, clinicians, and those who are interested in “stimulating their minds by exploring this fascinating field of research. Honorable Mention for Biomedicine & Neuroscience in the 2015 PROSE Awards from the Association of American Publishers The only reference on the market to focus on transcranial electrical stimulation (tES) Coverage across technical, historical, and application topics makes this the single, comprehensive resource for researchers and students Edited book with chapters authored by international leaders in the fields of medicine, neuroscience, psychology, and philosophy—providing the broadest, most expert coverage available

The possibility of harvesting the power of electric and magnetic impulses in the human body, commonly referred to as “neuromodulation,” is one of the most recent and promising developments of the modern science. Since the late ´60s, multiple invasive and non-invasive technologies have been developed and tested in experimental and clinical settings with the final aim of modulating the function of the central and peripheral nervous system. Clinical applications include, but are not limited to, common neurological disorders such as Parkinson’s disease and other movement disorders. The bulk of evidence supporting the clinical efficacy of various invasive and non-invasive approaches for neuromodulation has progressively led scientific societies, patients’ associations, and regulatory entities to acknowledge the critical role played by neuromodulation in the therapeutic algorithms of a wide range of neurological disorders. As a result, new technologies have been recently introduced into the market or are currently under validation. Their potential implementation into innovative protocols for neuromodulation demands a critical revision of what are the unmet needs for neuromodulation in movement disorders.