This anthology is a collective endeavor of scholars from India and Pakistan devoted to Sufi mystics, literature and shrines with a detailed introduction. The essays explore the methods adopted by the Punjab Sufis to popularize the mystic ideology and praxis in the medieval socio-cultural milieu. These writings also delve into the different genres of Sufi literature, both in the elite and vernacular languages, intending to appreciate the nuances of Punjab Sufism. Apart from the architectural features of the Sufi shrines, the anthology attempts to illumine the organic linkages between these institutions and the Punjabis and, thus, underscore the Sufi non-communitarian devotion as a primary ingredient of the Punjabi cultural fusion. This title is co-published with Aakar Books. Print editions not for sale in South Asia (India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bangladesh, Pakistan and Bhutan)

This book explores the organic lives of popular Sufi shrines in contemporary Northwest India. It traverses the worldview of shrine spaces, rituals and their complex narratives, and provides an insight into their urban and rural landscapes in the post-Partition (Indian) Punjab. What happened to these shrines when attempts were made to dissuade Sikhs, Muslims and Hindus from their veneration of popular saints in the early twentieth century? What was the fate of popular shrines that persisted even when the Muslim population was virtually wiped off as a result of migration during Partition? How did these shrines manifest in the context of the threat posed by militants in the 1980s? How did such popular practices reconfigure themselves when some important centres of Sufism were left behind in the West Punjab (now Pakistan)? This book examines several of these questions and utilizes a combination of analytical tools, new theoretical tropes and an ethnographic approach to understand and situate popular Sufi shrines so that they are both historicized and spatialized. As such, it lays out some crucial contours of the method and practice of understanding popular sacred spaces (within India and elsewhere), bridging the everyday and the metanarratives of power structures and state formation. This book will be useful to scholars, researchers and those engaged in interdisciplinary work in history, social anthropology, historical sociology, cultural studies, historical geography, religion and art history, as wel as those interested in Sufism and its shrines in South Asia.

PREFACE Whenever I chanced upon to hear melodies of Punjabi Sufi poets sung by folk singers, qawwaals or other accomplished musicians, I was always fascinated by their mysticism, their professed love for the Divine Beloved, their sincerity of purpose, the simplicity of their language, down-to-earth similes, most appropriate metaphors to drive home a point, and, some times, I wondered how very rich these compositions were in content, which, in fact, spurred me on the undertake study of Punjabi Sufi poetry in greater detail. During the course of this study I was pleasantly surprised when, in my search, I came across a treasure-trove of Divine Knowledge and Spiritual Realisation of a high order. It was also learnt that how these Sufi poets exercised a profound influence in the lives of the people and were responsible to a great extent for evolving a composite culture of the Punjab. They not only led the vanguard of progress in Punjabi language and literature but also, by the nobility of their pious feelings and rhythmic rendition, inspired the people to seek the Divine Love. The history of the Punjab from the thirteenth to the eighteenth centuries has seen many storms and peaceful interludes. These vicissitudes are reflected in the poetry of the Sufis. The Sufis, in the process, contributed a great deal in maintaining mental equilibrium of diverse communities in troublous times in the medieval ages. Their friendly and tolerant utt4erances retained the favour of both the Hindus as well as the Muslims and influenced the people's thought and sent the message of peace, love, fellowship, understanding and amity to every home and hamlet. They bestowed a remarkable legacy of communal harmony for posterity. I have tried to capture the essence of Sufi sayings and elaborate them into this book with the hope that it may help others in understanding the great Punjabi Sufi poets of yore and their contribution to bringing about a spirit of solidarity amongst different communities. It is not in any way an exhaustive study of the subject. As the Punjabi poetry was written by the Sufis in Persian script and, to maintain authenticity and originality, the verses of the Sufi poets in the book have been printed in Persian, as also in Devnagari and Roman scripts for easy comprehension and wider understanding. As regards the translations, or transliterations as some would prefer to call them, I would like to mention that it is not possible to preserve in any translation or transliteration the inherent depth, beauty and charm of the original, but for the benefit of those who are not so well-acquainted with the Punjabi language it was considered necessary that explanations in the form of translation should be given. So an attempt has been made to give a sense atleast. Another object which has prompted me in writing this book is that after truncation of the Punjab. In the wake of partition of India into Bharat and Pakistan in 1947 A.D., the original sources of information, regrettably, are fast disappearing I felt that I must explore, exploit and, where still possible, preserve this information, before it is too late. To me the study of poetry of the great Punjabi Sufi poets has been a source of tremendous strength, happiness and satisfaction. In the pious, full of Love Divine and rhythmic poetry of the Sufis of the Punjab, I have always found gems of wisdom, high intellect, profound spiritualism, hidden advices, solace and glory of the Divine Beloved, which brings peace and tranquility upon mind and spirit. I can only hope that this book will enable many others to derive the same benefits. A comprehensive glossary deals with the Sufistic terms to be found in the book. I have prepared this glossary as a soft of Sufistic dictionary and attempted to give various meanings of the words which, I believe, will be found useful in allegorical interpretation of Sufistic terms. I take this opportunity to express my profound gratitude to Dr. Syed Amir Hassan Abidi, Professor Emeritus, Department of Persian, University of Delhi, for favouring me greatly by writing a valuable 'Foreword' to this book. I am grateful to Iran Society of Calcutta, a premier literary society in eastern India, for undertaking the onerous task of publication of this book which is expected to be especially useful for all those who cherish and seek Love Divine. R.M. CHOPRA Calcutta August 1999

This book examines the history of, and the contestations on, Islam and the nature of religious change in 20th century Pakistan, focusing in particular on movements of Islamic reform and revival. This book is the first to bring the different facets of Islam, particularly Islamic reformism and shrine-oriented traditions, together within the confines of a single study ranging from the colonial to post-colonial era. Using a rich corpus of Urdu and Arabic material including biographical accounts, Sufi discourses (malfuzat), letter collections, polemics and unexplored archival sources, the author investigates how Islamic reformism and shrine-oriented religiosity interacted with one another in the post-colonial state of Pakistan. Focusing on the district of Mianwali in Pakistani northwestern Punjab, the book demonstrates how reformist ideas could only effectively find space to permeate after accommodating Sufi thoughts and practices; the text-based religious identity coalesced with overlapped traditional religious rituals and practices. The book proceeds to show how reformist Islam became the principal determinant of Islamic identity in the post-colonial state of Pakistan and how one of its defining effects was the hardening of religious boundaries. Challenging the approach of viewing the contestation between reformist and shrine-oriented Islam through the lens of binaries modern/traditional and moderate/extremist, this book makes an important contribution to the field of South Asian religion and Islam in modern South Asia.