A review and discussion of new knowledge on the structure and function of mammalian alkaline phosphatases (APs) gained over the last 25 years. It covers: * The structure, regulation and expression of the AP genes * The three-dimensional structure of APs and mutagenesis work that further defined the structural/functional domains of the isozymes * The phenotypic abnormalities of the different AP knockout mice * Our current understanding of the in vivo role of the AP isozymes. The book also describes the possible use of APs as therapeutic agents and therapeutic targets and the many uses of these enzymes in clinical medicine and in biotechnology.

There can be no doubt that alkaline phosphatase is one of the most extensively in vestigated of all enzymes. This has resulted from the ubiquity of its distribution, and from the ease and sensitivity with which its activity can be measured. Unfortunately, these wide-ranging but often superficial experimental studies have been followed up by intensive and systematic investigations in only a few limited areas of the biochemistry and chemical pathology of alkaline phosphatase. The result has been the accumulation of a scientific literature of intimidating proportions, and the inevitable rediscovery of already known facts about the enzyme. Scientists are taught early in their careers that, in the words of Sir John Herschel, "Hasty generalization is the bane of science. " Nevertheless, moments arrive in all spheres of scientific activity when generalization becomes essential, to codify and to select from the mass of data already accumulated, and to provide starting points for new developments and new lines of investigation. This is especially true in a field such as alkaline phosphatase research, in which very real dangers exist that the seeds of fundamental understanding will be lost amidst an unexamined harvest of empirical observations. The history of the study of alkaline phosphatase provides several instances when valuable generalizations have emerged. Occasionally, the conclusions drawn on the basis of available evidence were wrong; more frequently, they have stood the test of further experimentation, and always, they have provided new insights into the nature and proper ties of this enzyme.

Driving further the research on mammalian alkaline phosphatase structure and function, Phosphatase Modulators collects expert contributions into one “how to” manual for basic scientists interested in initiating a drug discovery effort. While this book contains the traditional method chapters and some typical reviews on the structure and known functions of phosphatases, other contributions are meant to discuss approaches and alternatives useful in making “go/no-go” decisions in high throughput screening (HTS) and lead optimization campaigns. Many chapters focus on tissue-nonspecific alkaline phosphatase (TNAP) as well as protein phosphatases. Written for the highly successful Methods in Molecular Biology series, chapters in this volume include the kind of detail and key implementation advice that promotes reproducible results. Step-by-step and practical, Phosphatase Modulators offers a path to understanding many of the facets and complexities associated with undertaking a drug discovery effort and will serve as a roadmap to initiating those efforts.

A general procedure for the purification of alkaline phosphatase from human tissues using affinity chromatography on a phosphonic acid- Sepharose derivative was developed. The enzymes from human liver, kidney, intestine, placenta and the serum of a patient with Paget's disease of bone were purified to apparent homogeneity as judged by several criteria. Some catalytic properties of alkaline phosphatase purified from human liver were studied. Under in vitro conditions the enzyme catalysed the hydrolysis of a number of phosphomonoesters which have been suggested to be possible physiological substrates. The V values for the hydrolysis of most substrates were very similar and the lowest K values were obtained at near-neutral pH. A calcium-sensitive ATPase activity could not be demonstrated, even in the presence of a calcium-dependent regulator protein. Ca and Mg ions abolished the ATPase and pyrophosphatase activities of liver alkaline phosphatase by formation of metal-substrate complexes. Phosphodiesters and phosphonic acids were not substrates of the enzyme although the latter compounds were inhibitors. The inhibition of liver alkaline phosphatase by phosphate (K^ = 35 yM) suggested that the enzyme activity in vivo may be largely inhibited. Vanadate was a potent competitive inhibitor of alkaline phosphatases from several sources (K_^ values were less than 1 yM) . The inhibition at physiological concentrations of vanadate, and the reversal of this inhibition by compounds such as L-epinephrine indicated that alkaline phosphatase may be regulated by vanadate. The removal of sialic acid residues from liver alkaline phosphatase by neuraminidase treatment caused the isoelectric point to change from 4.0 to 6.5, but had no influence on the specific activity of the enzyme, the values for six substrates, or the inhibition by L-homoarginine. The neuraminidase-treated enzyme was inactivated by heating at 56°C at the same rate as the native enzyme, but was inactivated by SDS more rapidly than the native enzyme. The amino acid compositions from 13 reports of alkaline phosphatase from mammalian and bacterial sources were compared. With the exception of the enzyme from human intestine, the results suggested that a high degree of compositional similarity was present. Apparent subunit molecular weight values, determined by SDS-PAGE for human alkaline phosphatases from liver, kidney, intestine, and Paget's serum were similar (92000-96000). The corresponding value for the enzyme from placenta w T as 74000. Maps of the radioiodinated peptides of alkaline phosphatase purified from human liver, kidney and Paget's serum were highly similar whereas the corresponding maps of the enzyme purified from intestine or placenta were different from each other and from the maps for the enzymes from the other tissues. These results and the data from heat inactivation and differential inhibition studies strongly suggest that three different structural genes code for the protein moiety of the alkaline phosphatase present in these tissues. The general purification protocol and the procedure for mapping the tryptic peptides from alkaline phosphatase radioiodinated within polyacrylamide gels appear to be useful for the characterization and structural identification of tumor-associated alkaline phosphatases.

Phosphoric acid is an important industrial acid that is utilized for manufacturing phosphatic fertilizers and industrial products, for pickling and posterior treatment of steel surfaces to prevent corrosion, for ensuring appropriate paint adhesion, and for the food and beverages industry, e.g., cola-type drinks to impart taste and slight acidity and to avoid iron sedimentation. This industry is spread out in countries of four continents - Asia, Africa, America, and Europe - which operate mines and production plants and produce fertilizers. Phosacid is one of the most widely known acids. The global phosacid market and its many phosphate derivatives are expanding worldwide; this trend is expected to continue in the next years, thus producing innovative products.